Termite is an eusocial insect classified in the infoporder taxonomic rank Isoptera , or as epifamily Termitoidae in the order of Blattodea cockroaches. Termites were once classified in separate sequences from cockroaches, but recent phylogenetic studies show that they evolved from near-cockroach ancestors during Jurassic or Triassic. However, the first termites may appear during the Permian or even Carbon. Around 3,106 species are currently depicted, with several hundred more left to be explained. Although these insects are often called "white ants", they are not ants.
Like ants and a few bees and wasps from a separate order of Hymenoptera, termites divide labor among the castes of sterile male and female "workers" and "soldiers". All the colonies have fertile men called "kings" and one or more fertile females called "queens". Most termites eat dead plant material and cellulose, generally in the form of wood, leaf litter, soil, or animal waste. Termites are a major detritivora, especially in subtropical and tropical regions, and the recycling of timber and plant material is very important ecologically.
Termites are one of the most successful insect groups on Earth, colonizing most of the mainland except Antarctica. Their colonies range from several hundred individuals to large communities with several million individuals. The termite queen has the longest life span of any insect in the world, with some queens reportedly living up to 30 to 50 years old. Unlike ants, which undergo complete metamorphosis, each individual termite travels through an incomplete metamorphosis that takes place through the egg, nymph, and adult stages. Colonies are described as superorganisms because termites are part of a self-governing entity: the colony itself.
Termites are a delicacy in the diet of some human cultures and are used in many traditional medicine. Several hundred species are economically important as pests that can cause serious damage to buildings, plants, or plantations. Some species, such as the West Indian caterpillar termite ( Cryptotermes brevis ), are considered invasive species.
Video Termite
Etimologi
The name Isoptera infraorder comes from the Greek word io is (same) and ptera (winged), which refers to almost the same size of the front and rear wings. "Termites" are derived from Latter and Latter Latin termes ("woodworms, white ants"), altered by the Latin influence of terere ("to rub, wear, scrape" ) from the previous word tarme . Termite nests are commonly known as terminarium or thermitaria . In early English, termites are known as "wood ants" or "white ants". The term modern was first used in 1781.
Maps Termite
Taxonomy and evolution
DNA analysis of the 16S rRNA sequence has supported the hypothesis, initially suggested by Cleveland and colleagues in 1934, that these insects are closely related to wood-eating cockroaches (genus Cryptocercus, woodroach). This previous conclusion is based on the similarity of symbiotic intestinal flagellates in wood-eating cockroaches to those in certain termite species thought to be living fossils. In the 1960s, additional evidence supporting the hypothesis arose when F. A. McKittrick recorded similar morphological characteristics between several termites and the nymphs of Cryptocercus . This similarity has led some authors to suggest that termites are reclassified as one family, Termitidae, in the order of Blattodea, which contains cockroaches. Other researchers advocate a more conservative measure to retain termites as Termitoidae, epifamily in the order of cockroaches, which retain the classification of termites at the family level and below.
The most unambiguous termite termite fossils today date from early Cretaceous, but given the diversity of Kapur termites and early fossil fossils that show mutualism between these microorganisms and insects, they may originate earlier in Jurassic or Triassic. Further evidence of Jurassic origin is the assumption that termites Fruitafossor consume termites, judging by their morphological similarities to modern-consuming termite mammals. The oldest termite nest found to be believed to originate from Upper Cretaceous in West Texas, where the oldest known faecal pellets are also found.
The claim that termites appear earlier has faced controversy. For example, F. A, M. Weesner suggests that the termite Mastotermitidae can return to the Final Permian, 251 million years ago, and the fossil wings that resemble the Mastotermes wing of the Mastotermitidae. , the most primitive termite, has been found in the Permian lining in Kansas. It may even be the first termite to emerge during Carboniferous. Termites are considered to be descendants of the genus Cryptocercus . The folded wings of the fossil wooden roach Pycnoblattina , are arranged in a convex pattern between segments 1a and 2a, similar to those seen in Mastotermes , the only living insects of the same pattern. Krishna et al. , though, assumes that all Paleozoic and Triassic insects that are temporarily classified as termites are in fact unrelated to termites and must be excluded from Isoptera. Termites are the first social insects to develop a caste system, developing more than 100 million years ago.
Termites have long been accepted to relate closely to cockroaches and mantides, and they are classified in the same superorder (Dictyoptera). Strong evidence suggests termites are highly specialized wood-eating cockroaches. The Cryptocercus census genus has the strongest phylogenetic similarity to termites and is considered a brothers-group for termites. Termites and Cryptocercus have the same morphological and social features: for example, most cockroaches do not show social characteristics, but Cryptocercus is caring for its children and demonstrating other social behaviors such as trophallaxis. and allogrooming. The primitive primitive north rays ( Mastotermes darwiniensis ) show many characteristics such as cockroaches that are not shared with other termites, such as laying eggs on a raft and having an anal lobe on the wing. Cryptocercidae and Isoptera join the Xylophagidae clade. Although termites are sometimes called "white ants," they are not actually ants. Ants belong to the Formicidae family in the Hymenoptera order. The similarity of their social structure with termites is associated with convergent evolution. Genomes of termites are generally relatively large compared to other insects; the first full-termite termite genome, from Zootermopsis nevadensis , published in the journal Nature Communications, consists of about 500 MB, while two later published genomes, Macrotermes natalensis and Cryptotermes secundus , much larger about 1.3Gb.
In 2013, some 3,106 species of termites and termite fossils are recognized, classified in 12 families. The Infraorder Isoptera is divided into the following clade and family groups, showing subfamilies in their respective classifications:
Distribution and diversity
Termites are found in all continents except Antarctica. The diversity of termite species is low in North America and Europe (10 species known in Europe and 50 in North America), but high in South America, where more than 400 species are known. Of the 3,000 species of termites currently classified, 1,000 are found in Africa, where the mounds are abundant in certain areas. About 1.1 million active termite mounds can be found in the northern Kruger National Park alone. In Asia, there are 435 species of termites, most of which are distributed in China. In China, termite species are confined to light tropical and subtropical habitats south of the Yangtze River. In Australia, all ecological termite groups (wet wood, dry wood, underground) are endemic in the country, with more than 360 species classified.
Because of their soft cuticles, termites do not inhabit cold or cold habitats. There are three groups of ecological termites: wet wood, dry wood and underground soil. Dampwood termites are found only in coniferous forest, and dry wood termites are found in hardwood forests; Subterranean termites live in very diverse areas. One species in the dry wood group is the West Indian dry wood termite (Cryptotermes brevis), which is an invasive species in Australia.
Description
Termites are usually small, ranging from 4 to 15 millimeters (0.16 to 0.59 inches). The largest of all the remaining termites is the queen of Macrotermes bellicosus species, with a length of up to 10 cm (4 inches). Another giant termite, extinct Gyatermes styriensis, developed in Austria during the Miocene and has 76 millimeters (3.0 inches) wingspan and a body length of 25 millimeters (0.98 inches).
Most workers and soldiers are completely blind because they do not have a pair of eyes. However, some species, such as Hodotermes mossambicus , have compound eyes that they use for orientation and to distinguish sunlight from moonlight. Alates have eyes with lateral oselus. The lateral oselus, however, is not found in all termites. Like other insects, termites have small tongue-shaped labrum and clypeus; clypeus is divided into postclypeus and anteclypeus. Termite antennas have a number of functions such as feeling touch, taste, smell (including pheromone), heat and vibration. The three basic segments of termite antennas include scape, pedicel (usually shorter than scape), and flagellum (all segments outside scape and pedicel). The mouth contains the maxillae, labium, and a set of jaws. Maxillae and labium have palps that help termite food taste and handling.
Consistent with all insects, thorax termite anatomy consists of three segments: prothorax, mesothorax and metathorax. Each segment contains a pair of legs. In alates, the wings are located in mesothorax and metathorax. Mesothorax and metathorax have well-developed exoskeletal plates; prothorax has smaller plates.
Termites have a segmented stomach with two plates, and a sternit. The tenth abdominal segment has a pair of short cerci. There are ten digites, nine of them wide and one long. The reproductive organs are similar to those in cockroaches but are more simplified. For example, the intravitant organ does not exist in men, and the sperm is immotile or aflagellate. However, termite Mastotermitidae have multiflagellata sperm with limited motility. The genitals in women are also simplified. Unlike other termites, the female Mastotermitidae has an ovipositor, a feature very similar to that of a female cockroach.
Non-reproductive ticks are termite not winged and only rely on six feet to move. Alates fly only for a short time, so they also depend on their feet. The appearance of legs is similar in every caste, but the soldiers have bigger and heavier legs. The leg structure is consistent with other insects: the leg parts include coxa, trochanter, femur, tibia and tarsus. The number of tibial spurs on an individual's legs varies. Some termite species have arolium, which lies between claws, which are present in species that climb on smooth surfaces but are absent in most termites.
Unlike ants, the rear wing and the front wing have the same length. Most of the time, alate is a bad flyer; Their technique is to launch themselves in the air and fly in random directions. Studies show that when compared with larger termites, smaller termites can not fly long distances. When the termites are flying, the wings stay at the right angles, and when the termites are resting, their wings remain parallel to the body.
Caste System
Termites of workers do the most work within the colony, responsible for feeding, food storage, and maintenance of mains and nests. Workers are charged with the digestion of cellulose in food and thus are the most likely caste found in infected wood. The termite process of workers feeding other nankmates is known as trophallaxis. Trophallaxis is an effective nutrition tactic for converting and recycling nitrogen components. This frees parents from feeding all but the first generation of descendants, allowing for the group to grow much larger and ensuring that the necessary intestinal symbionts are transferred from one generation to another. Some termite species do not have a true workers caste, instead rely on nymphs who do the same job without distinguishing as separate castes.
The warrior caste has anatomical and behavioral specialties, and their sole aim is to defend the colony. Many armies have large heads with powerful jaws so modified that they grow so they can not feed themselves. Conversely, like teenagers, they are fed by workers. Fontanela, a simple hole in the forehead that emits secretion of defense, is a hallmark of the Rhinotermitidae family. Many species are easily identifiable by using the characteristics of a larger and darker army chief and large mandibles. Among certain termites, soldiers may use their globular (phragmotic) heads to block their narrow tunnels. Different types of soldiers include small and main soldiers, and nasutes, which have frontal nozzle projection like horns (nasus). These unique warriors are capable of spraying poisonous and dangerous secretions containing diterpenes on their enemies. Nitrogen fixation plays an important role in nasal nutrition.
The reproductive caste of the adult colony includes a fertile woman and man, known as queen and king. Queen colonies are responsible for egg production for colonies. Unlike ants, the king befriends him for life. In some species, the queen's belly swells dramatically to increase fecundity, a characteristic known as physogastrism. Depending on the species, the queen begins producing a reproductive winged assemblage at any given time of the year, and large flocks emerge from the colony when the marriage flight begins. This herd attracts a wide variety of predators.
Life cycle
Termites are often compared to social Hymenoptera (ants and various species of bees and wasps), but the origins of their different evolutions result in huge differences in the life cycle. In Hymenoptera eusocial, workers exclusively women, men (drones) are haploid and progress from infertile eggs, while women (both workers and queens) are diploid and progress from fertilized eggs. Conversely, the termite worker, who is the majority in the colony, is a diploid individual of both sexes and develops from a fertilized egg. Depending on the species, male and female workers may have different roles in termite colonies.
The life cycle of termites begins with eggs, but in contrast to bees or ants that go through a process of development called incomplete metamorphosis, with eggs, nymphs and adult stages. The nymphs resemble small adults, and through a series of moult as they grow. In some species, the egg passes through four stages of moulting and the nymph passes through three. The nymphs moult first into workers, and then some workers go through further moulting and become soldiers or alates; workers become alates only by moulting into alate nymphs.
The development of a nymph into an adult can take months; the period of time depends on the availability of food, temperature, and colony population in general. Because the nymphs can not feed themselves, workers should feed them, but workers also take part in the colony's social life and have certain tasks to accomplish such as feeding, building or maintaining a nest or taking care of the queen. Pheromones regulate the caste system in termite colonies, preventing all but very few termites into fertile queens.
The termite eusocial queen Reticulitermes speratus can last long without sacrificing fecundity. This long-lived queen has a much lower level of oxidative damage, including oxidative DNA damage, than workers, soldiers and nymphs. The lower level of damage appears to be due to increased catalase, an enzyme that protects against oxidative stress.
Reproduction
Termites alates only leave the colony when the marriage flight takes place. Male and female alates are paired together and then landed looking for a suitable place for the colony. A king of termites and queens do not pair up until they find a place like that. When they do, they dig up a space big enough for both, close the entrance and continue to mate. After marriage, the couple never goes out and spend the rest of their lives in the nest. Wedding flight times vary across species. For example, algae in certain species occur during the day in the summer while others appear during the winter. Marriage flights may also start at dusk, when alliances are clustered around areas with lots of light. The time when a nuptial flight starts depends on environmental conditions, time, humidity, wind speed and rainfall. The number of termites in the colony also varies, with larger species typically having 100-1000 individuals. However, some termite colonies, including those with large individuals, can amount to millions.
The queen only lays 10-20 eggs in the early stages of the colony, but lays out 1,000 days when the colony is several years old. As it matures, the main queen has a large capacity to spawn. In some species, the adult queen has a very distended stomach and can produce 40,000 eggs a day. Both mature ovaries may have about 2,000 ovarioles each. The abdomen increases the queen's length to several times more than before mating and reduces her ability to move freely; help workers provide assistance.
The king only grows slightly larger after the initial mating and continues to mate with the queen for life (termite queen can live between 30 to 50 years); this is very different from the ant colony, where a queen marries once with a male and keeps the gametes to life, since male ants die shortly after mating. If a queen does not exist, the king of termites produces pheromones that encourage the development of a replaced termite queen. Because the queen and monogamous king, sperm competition does not happen.
Termites through incomplete metamorphosis on the road to becoming alatees form subcaste in certain termite species, serve as potential additional reproductive. This reproductive reproduction only matures into primary reproductive after the death of a king or queen, or when primary reproduction is separated from the colony. Supplements have the ability to replace primary reproduction of the dead, and there may also be more than one supplement in the colony. Some queens have the ability to switch from sexual reproduction to asexual reproduction. Studies show that while the queen of the termites mates with the king to produce colony workers, the queen reproduces their replacement (queen neotenic) parthenogenetically.
Neotropical termites Embiratermes neotenicus and some other related species produce colonies containing the main king accompanied by the main queen or up to 200 neotenic queens derived from the sole parthenogenesis of the primary primer that established. Parthenogenesis forms may be used to maintain heterozygosity in the genome travel from mother to child, thus avoiding inbreeding depression.
Behavior and ecology
Diet
Termites are detritivora, consume dead plants at any level of decomposition. They also play an important role in the ecosystem by recycling waste materials such as dead wood, dirt and crops. Many species eat cellulose, have a special midgut that breaks down the fibers. Termites are considered as the main source (11%) of atmospheric methane, one of the major greenhouse gases, resulting from the breakdown of cellulose. Termites rely primarily on symbiotic protozoa (metamonad) and other microbes such as flagella protists in their intestines to digest cellulose for them, allowing them to absorb the final product for their own use. Gut protozoa, such as Trichonympha , in turn, depend on the symbiotic bacteria embedded in the surface to produce some of the necessary digestive enzymes. The highest termites, especially in the Termitidae family, can produce their own cellulase enzymes, but they rely primarily on bacteria. Flagelata has been lost in Termitidae. The scientists' understanding of the relationship between the digestive tract of termites and the microbial endosymion is still not perfect; what is true in all termite species, however, is that workers feed other members of the colony with substances derived from the digestion of plant material, either from the mouth or the anus. Seen from closely related bacterial species, it is suspected that the intestinal microbials of termites and cockroaches originate from their dictyopteran ancestors.
Certain species such as Gnathamitermes tubiformans have seasonal food habits. For example, they may prefer to consume Red three-awn ( Aristida longiseta) during the summer, Buffalograss ( Buchloe dactyloides ) from May to August, and blue grama Bouteloua gracilis during spring, summer, and autumn. The colonies of G. tubiformans consume less food in the spring than during autumn when their eating activity is high.
Different timber differs in its vulnerability to termite attack; these differences are associated with factors such as water content content, hardness, and resins and lignin. In one study, dry wood termite Cryptotermes brevis was favored by poplar and maple trees on other woods that are generally rejected by termite colonies. This preference may in part have represented conditioned or learned behavior.
Some species of termites practice fungiculture. They maintain a special mushroom "garden" of the genus Termitomyces , which is maintained by insect feces. When the mushrooms are eaten, their spores pass undamaged through the termite intestine to complete the cycle by germinating in fresh fecal pellets. Molecular evidence suggests that the Macrotermitinae family developed the farm about 31 million years ago. It is estimated that more than 90 percent of the dry wood in the semi-African and Asian savannas ecosystem is reprocessed by these termites. Originally living in the rainforest, mushroom farms allowed them to colonize African grasslands and other new environments, eventually evolving into Asia.
Depending on their eating habits, termites are placed into two groups: lower termites and higher termites. Lower termites generally eat wood. Because wood is difficult to digest, termites prefer to consume wood that is infected with fungi because it is easier to digest and fungi have high protein. Meanwhile, higher termites consume a wide variety of ingredients, including faeces, humus, grass, leaves and roots. The intestines in lower termites contain many species of bacteria along with protozoa, whereas higher termites have only a few species of bacteria without protozoa.
Predator
Termites are consumed by various predators. One species of termite, Hodotermes mossambicus , is found in the stomach of 65 birds and 19 mammals. Ants, arthropods, reptiles, and amphibians such as bees, centipedes, cockroaches, crickets, dragonflies, frogs, lizards, scorpions, spiders and frogs consume these insects, while 2 spiders in the Ammoxenidae family are predators of special termites. Other predators include aardvarks, aardwolves, pangolins, bats, bears, bilbies, many birds, echidnas, foxes, galagos, numbs, rats and pangolins. The aardwolf is an insectivorous mammal that primarily feeds on termites; it places its food in sound and also by detecting the aroma secreted by the soldiers; single aardwolf can eat thousands of termites in one night by using a long, sticky tongue. Bear sloth opens the mound to consume the nest, while chimpanzees have developed a tool for "fishing" termites from their nests. The analysis of bone wear patterns used by early hominin Paranthropus robustus shows that they use this tool to dig out termite mounds.
Among all predators, ants are the biggest enemy of termites. Some of the genus of ants is a special predator of termites. For example, Megaponera is a termite-eating genus (thermophagus) that performs an attack activity, some lasting several hours. Paltothyreus tarsatus is another termite-robbing species, with each individual piled as many as possible termites in the mandible before returning home, while recruiting additional narrmates to the raid site via a chemical pathway. The Malaysian rootinot ants Eurhopalothrix heliscata use different termite hunting strategies by pressing themselves into narrow spaces, as they hunt through decayed forest termite nests. Once inside, the ant captures its prey using a short but sharp jaw. Tetramorium uelense is a special predatory species that feeds on small termites. A scout recruits 10-30 workers to an area where termites exist, killing them by exterminating them with their sting. Centromyrmex and Iridomyrmex colonies are sometimes nested in termite mounds, and hence termites are preyed on by these ants. No evidence for any relationship (other than the predator) is known. Other ants, including Acanthostichus , Camponotus , Crematogaster , Cylindromyrmex , Leptogenys , < i> Odontomachus , Ophthalmopone , Pachycondyla , Rhytidoponera , Solenopsis and Wasmannia , also prey on termites. In contrast to all of these ant species, and despite their immense diversity of prey, the Dorylus ants rarely consume termites.
Ants are not the only invertebrates that do the raids. Many sphecoid wasps and several species including Polybia Lepeletier and Angiopolybia Araujo are known to attack termites during termite escape.
Parasites, pathogens and viruses
Termites are less likely to be attacked by parasites than bees, wasps and ants, as they are usually well protected on their bumps. Nonetheless, termites are infected by various parasites. Some of these include fluted flies, Pyemotes mites, and large numbers of nematode parasites. Most of the nematode parasites are in the order of Rhabditida; others are in the genus Mermis , Diplogaster aerivora and Harteria gallinarum . Under threat of attack by parasites, colonies can migrate to new locations. Fungal pathogens such as Aspergillus nomius and Metarhizium anisopliae are, however, a major threat to termite colonies as they are not host-specific and can infect large sections of the colony; transmission usually occurs through direct physical contact. M. anispliae is known to weaken the termite immune system. Infection with A. nomine occurs only when the colony is under great pressure.
Termites are infected by viruses including Entomopoxvirinae and Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus.
Locomotion and foraging
Because workers and soldiers caste lack wings and thus never fly, and reproductions use their wings for only a short time, termites depend mainly on their feet to move.
The behavior of foraging depends on the type of termites. For example, certain species eat the wooden structures they inhabit, and others harvest food near the nest. Most workers are rarely found outdoors, and do not seek food without protection; they rely on tarpaulins and runways to protect them from predators. Subterranean termites build tunnels and galleries for food, and workers who find food sources recruit additional narrmates by depositing phagomagic pheromones that attract workers. Workers are feeding using semiochemicals to communicate with each other, and workers who start looking for food outside the pheromone trace release their nest from their sternum glands. In one species, Nasutitermes costalis , there are three phases in the foraging expedition: first, the army lurks a region. When they find a food source, they communicate with other soldiers and a small force of workers begins to emerge. In the second phase, workers appear in large numbers on the site. The third phase is marked by a decrease in the number of soldiers present and an increase in the number of workers. An isolated termite worker can engage in aviation behavior LÃÆ' Â © vy as a strategy that is optimized to find nestmates or foraging.
Competition
Competition between the two colonies always results in agonist behavior towards each other, resulting in a fight. This fight may cause death on both sides and, in some cases, gain or loss of territory. The "cemetery hole" may exist, in which dead corpses of dead termites are buried.
Studies show that when termites meet each other in the foraging area, some termites are deliberately blocking the road to prevent the entry of other termites. Dead termites of other colonies found in exploratory tunnels lead to the isolation of areas and thus the need to build new tunnels. Conflict between two competitors is not always the case. For example, although they may block each other, Macrotermes bellicosus and Macrotermes subhyalinus colonies are not always aggressive against each other. Buru suicide is known in Coptotermes formosanus . Because colony can form into a physical conflict, some termites squeeze tightly into the feeding tunnel and die, successfully blocking the tunnel and ending all agonistic activity.
Among the reproduction caste, the neotenic queen can compete with each other to become the dominant queen when there is no primary reproduction. The struggle between the queens led to the abolition of all but the single queen, who, with the king, took over the colony.
Ants and termites can compete with each other for nesting space. Specifically, ants that prey on termites usually have a negative impact on arboreal nesting species.
Communications
Most termites are blind, so communication mainly occurs through chemical, mechanical and pheromonal cues. These communication methods are used in a variety of activities, including feeding, seeking reproduction, building nests, recognizing nestmates, nuptial flights, searching and fighting enemies, and defending nests. The most common way to communicate is through antennas. A number of pheromones are known, including contact pheromones (which are transmitted when workers are involved in trophallaxis or treatment) and alarms, traces and sex pheromones. Alarm pheromones and other defense chemicals are secreted from the frontal glands. The pheromone trail is secreted from the sternum gland, and the sex pheromone comes from two glandular sources: the sternal and stunted glands. When termites come out to search for food, they feed on columns along the ground through vegetation. Traces can be identified by deposits of faeces or runways that are covered by objects. Workers leave pheromones on this path, which are detected by other nestmates through olfactory receptors. Termites can also communicate through mechanical cues, vibrations, and physical contacts. These signals are often used for alarm communication or to evaluate food sources.
When termites build their nests, they use indirect communication. No termites are responsible for a particular construction project. Individual termites react rather than think, but at the group level, they exhibit a kind of collective cognition. Special structures or other objects such as ground or pillar pellets cause termites to start building. Termites add these objects to existing structures, and they encourage building behavior in other workers. The result is a self-managed process whereby the information that directs termite activity results from environmental changes rather than from direct contact between individuals.
Termites can distinguish nestmates and non-nestmates through chemical communication and bowel symbionts: chemicals composed of hydrocarbons released from the cuticle allow the recognition of foreign termite species. Each colony has a different smell. This odor is the result of genetic and environmental factors such as termite diet and bacterial composition in the termite gut.
Defense
Termites rely on alarm communication to maintain the colony. An alarm pheromone can be released when the nest has been violated or attacked by an enemy or potential pathogen. Termites always avoid infected nestmates with the spores of Metarhizium anisopliae , by vibration signals emitted by infected nestmates. Other defense methods include intense jerking and fluid secretion from the frontal glands and bowel movements containing pheromone alarms.
In some species, some soldiers block tunnels to prevent their enemies from entering the nest, and they may deliberately paralyze themselves as defensive measures. In cases where the intrusion stems from a greater offense of the soldier's head, defense requires special formations in which the army forms a phalanx-like formation around the offense and biting the intruder. If the invasion done by Megaponera analyst succeeds, the entire colony can be destroyed, although this scenario is rare.
For termites, any breach of their tunnel or nest is a reason to be vigilant. When termites detect potential violations, the soldiers usually bang their heads, apparently to attract another army for defense and hire additional workers to fix any offense. In addition, termites are feared to hit other termites that cause them to be alert and leave traces of pheromones to disturbed areas, which is also a way to hire additional workers.
The Nasutitermitinae pantropic subfamily has a special soldier caste, known as nasutes, which have the ability to emit harmful liquids through frontal projection such as the horns they use for defense. Nasuta have lost their mandibles through the road of evolution and must be fed by the workers. A wide variety of monoterpene hydrocarbon solvents have been identified in nasute secretions. Similarly, subterranean Formosan termites have been known to emit naphthalene to protect their nests.
Soldiers of the species Globitermes sulphureus commit suicide by autotysis - breaking large glands just beneath the surface of their cuticles. The thick yellow liquid in the gland becomes very sticky when in contact with air, involving ants or other insects trying to attack the nest. Other termites, Neocapriterme taracua , are also involved in suicide defense. Workers are physically unable to use their mandibles while in fights form a bag full of chemicals, then deliberately breaking themselves, releasing toxic poison chemicals and killing their enemies. The soldiers from the termite family of neotropic Serritermitidae have a defense strategy that involves the autotysis of the front gland, with the body ruptured between the head and the abdomen. When soldiers guarding the entrance of the nest are attacked by intruders, they engage in autothysis, making blocks that refuse entry to any assailant.
Workers use several different strategies to deal with their deaths, including burying, cannibalism, and avoiding corpses altogether. To avoid pathogens, termites are sometimes involved in necrophoresis, where a nestmate brings out corpses from colonies to dispose of them elsewhere. What strategy is used depends on the nature of the corpse a worker faces (ie the age of the carcass).
Relationships with other organisms
Fungal species are known to mimic termite eggs, successfully avoiding natural predators. This small brown ball, known as "termite ball", rarely kills eggs, and in some cases workers tend to them. This fungus mimics these eggs by producing a cellulosic digesting enzyme known as glucosidase. A unique mimic behavior exists between the various species of the Trichopsenius beetle and certain termite species in Reticulitermes . Beetles share the same cuticle hydrocarbons with termites and even synthesize them. This chemical impersonation allows the beetles to integrate themselves in termite colonies. The complement developed on the physogastric stomach of Austrospirachtha mimetes enables the beetles to mimic termite workers.
Some ant species are known to catch termites for use as a source of fresh food later in life, rather than killing them. For example, Formica nigra catches termites, and those who try to escape are immediately captured and taken underground. Specific ant species in the Ponerinae subfamily do this raid even though other ant species enter alone to steal eggs or nymphs. Ants like Megaponera analyst attack the outside of the mound and the Dorylinae ants strike underground. Nevertheless, some termites and ants can coexist peacefully. Some termite species, including Nasutitermes corniger , form associations with certain ant species to keep predator ant species away. The earliest known relationship between ants Azteca and Nasutitermes termites is from the Oligocene to Miocene period.
54 species of ants are known to inhabit the mounds of Nasutitermes , both colonized and abandoned. One reason why many ants live in mounds of Nasutitermes is that termites occur frequently in their geographical range; another is to protect yourself from the flood. Iridomyrmex also inhabit the termite nest even though no evidence for any relationship (other than predators) is known. In rare cases, certain termite species live within an active ant colony. Some invertebrate organisms such as beetles, caterpillars, flies and millipedes are thermophils and live in termite colonies (they can not survive independently). As a result, certain beetles and flies evolved with their host. They have developed glands that release substances that attract workers by licking them. The mound can also provide protection and warmth for birds, lizards, snakes, and scorpions.
Termites are known to carry pollen and regularly visit flowers, thus considered as potential pollinators for a number of flowering plants. One particular flower, Rhizanthella gardneri , is regularly pollinated by workers looking for food, and perhaps the only flower of Orchidaceae in the world that is pollinated by termites.
Many plants have developed an effective defense against termites. However, the seedlings are vulnerable to termite attacks and require additional protection, as their defense mechanisms only develop when they have passed the nursery stage. Defense is usually achieved by secreting antifeedant chemicals into the wood cell wall. This reduces the ability of termites to efficiently digest cellulose. A commercial product, "Blockaid", has been developed in Australia that uses a variety of plant extracts to create a toxic termite barrier in buildings. Extracts from Australian figwort species, Eremophila , have been shown to repel termites; tests have shown that termites are strongly rejected by toxic substances as far as they will starve rather than consume food. When kept close to the extract, they become confused and eventually die. Relationship with the environment
The populations of termites can be substantially influenced by environmental changes including those caused by human intervention. A study in Brazil investigated a collection of termites from three Caatinga sites under different levels of anthropogenic disturbance in the semi-arid region of northeastern Brazil sampled using a 65 x 2 m transect. A total of 26 termite species were present in three locations, and 196 meetings were recorded in the transect. The termite set is very different between locations, with a striking reduction in both diversity and abundance with increasing disturbances, due to the reduction of tree density and ground cover, and with the intensity of being trampled by cattle and goats. Wood feeder is a food group that is greatly affected.
Nest
The termite nest may be considered to be composed of two parts, the lifeless and the living. The living is all the termites living in the colony, and the nonliving part is the structure itself, built by termites. The nest can be widely separated into three main categories: subterranean (fully underground), epigeal (protruding above ground level), and arboreal (built on the ground, but always connected to the ground via a shelter tube). The epigeal nest (mound) protrudes from the earth with soil contact and is made of soil and mud. The nest has many functions such as providing a protected living space and providing predator protection. Most termites build underground colonies rather than nests and multifunctional mounds. The primitive termites of today's nests in wooden structures such as logs, stumps and dead tree parts, as termites did millions of years ago.
To build their nests, termites primarily use faeces, which have as many properties as construction materials. Other building materials include partially ingested ingredients, used in carton nests (arboreal nests constructed of faecal and wood elements), and soil, used in underground nest construction and mounds of soil. Not all nests are visible, as many nests in tropical forests lie underground. Species in the Apicotermitinae subfamily are good examples of underground nest builders, as they only live in the tunnel. Other termites live in wood, and tunnels are built when they eat wood. The nests and bumps protect the soft bodies of termites against drought, light, pathogens and parasites, and provide fortification to predators. The nest made of cardboard is very weak, so the population uses a counter-attack strategy against predatory attacks.
The carton arbore nests of the mangrove swamp Nasutitermes are enriched in lignin and depleted in cellulose and xylans. This change is caused by bacterial spoilage in the termite intestine: they use their faeces as a cardboard construction material. Arboreal termite nests can account for as much as 2% of the above-ground carbon storage in the Puerto Rican mangrove swamps. These nests of Nasutitermes consist mostly of partially biodegraded wood materials from mangrove tree branches and branches, ie, Rhizophora mangle (red mangrove), Avicennia germinans i> (black mangrove) and Laguncularia racemose (white mangrove forest).
Some species build complex nests called polysik nests; This habitat is called policalism. Polycalite termites form many nests, or calies, connected by the crypt. Genera termites Apicotermes and Trinervitermes are known to have polycal species. Polycycle nests appear to be more rare in mound species although polar arboreal nests have been observed in some species of Nasutitermes .
Mounds
The nests are considered bumps if they stand out from the earth's surface. A mound gives the same termite protection as the nest but is stronger. Mounds located in areas with heavy rainfall and are continuously at risk of erosion bumps due to their rich clay construction. Those made of cardboard can provide protection from rain, and can even withstand high rainfall. Certain areas in the mound are used as strong points in case of violation. For example, Cubitermes colonies build a narrow tunnel that is used as a strong point, since the tunnel diameter is small enough to be blocked by soldiers. A highly protected space, known as the "queen of cells", houses the queen and king and is used as the last line of defense.
Species within the Macrotermes genus are arguably building the most complex structures in the insect world, building large bumps. These mounds are among the largest in the world, reaching a height of 8 to 9 meters (26 to 29 feet), and consist of chimneys, peaks and ridges. Other termite species, Amitermes meridionalis , can build nests as high as 3 to 4 meters (9 to 13 feet) and 2.5 meters wide (8 feet) wide. The highest mound ever recorded along the 12.8 meters (42 feet) found in the Democratic Republic of Congo.
Sculptures sometimes have intricate and distinctive shapes, such as from termite compass ( Amitermes meridionalis and A. Laurensis ), which builds a high mound, wedge-shaped with long axis oriented around north-south, which gives them their common name. This orientation has been experimentally demonstrated to aid in thermoregulation. The north-south orientation causes the internal temperature of the mound to rise rapidly during the morning while avoiding overheating from the midday sun. The temperature then stays on the plateau for the rest of the day until night.
Residential tube
Termites build shelter tubes, also known as ground tubes or mud tubes, which start from the ground. This reservoir can be found on walls and other structures. Built by termites during the night, during high humidity, these tubes provide protection against termites from potential predators, especially ants. The shelter tube also provides high humidity and darkness and allows workers to collect inaccessible food sources in other ways. These alleys are made of dirt and dirt and are usually brown. The size of the collection tube depends on the amount of available food sources. Starting from less than 1 cm to several cm in width, but can extend to tens of meters in length.
Relationships with humans
As pest
Because of their wood-eating habits, many termite species can do great damage to unprotected buildings and other wood structures. Their habit of staying hidden often results in their undetectable presence until the wood is heavily damaged, leaving behind a thin layer of walls that protects them from the environment. Of the 3,106 known species, only 183 species cause damage; 83 species cause significant damage to the wood structure. In North America, nine underground species are pests; in Australia, 16 species have an economic impact; in the Indian subcontinent 26 species are considered pests, and in tropical Africa, 24. In Central America and the West Indies, there are 17 species of pests. Among the termite genera, Coptotermes has the highest number of pest species from any genus, with 28 species known to cause damage. Less than 10% of dry wood termites are pests, but they infect wooden structures and furniture in tropical, subtropical, and other areas. Dampwood termites only attack wooden material exposed to rain or soil.
Dry wood termites thrive in warm climates, and human activities can allow them to rush home as they can be transported through contaminated goods, containers and vessels. The termite colony has been seen growing in warm buildings located in cold regions. Some termites are considered invasive species. Cryptotermes brevis , the world's most widely introduced invasive termite species, has been introduced to all islands of the West Indies and to Australia.
In addition to causing damage to buildings, termites can also damage food crops. Termites can attack trees that are resistant to low damage but generally ignore fast-growing plants. Most attacks occur during harvest; plants and trees are attacked during the dry season.
The damage caused by termites weighs the southwestern United States about $ 1.5 billion annually in damaged wood structures, but the cost of actual worldwide damage can not be determined. Dry wood termites are responsible for most of the damage caused by termites.
To better control the termite population, various methods have been developed to track the movement of termites. One of the earliest methods involved distributing a termite bait mixed with a protein marker of immunoglobulin G (IgG) from a rabbit or chicken. Termites collected from the field can be tested for IgG-rabbit markers using an IgG-specific rabbit-testing apparatus. Recently developed, cheaper alternatives include tracing termites using egg whites, cow's milk, or soy milk proteins, which can be sprayed on termites in the field. Termites containing this protein can be tracked using a special protein ELISA test.
As food
43 species of termites are used as food by humans or fed to livestock. These insects are very important in less developed countries where malnutrition is common, because protein from termites can help improve human diet. Termites are consumed in many areas globally, but this practice has only become popular in developed countries in recent years.
Termites are consumed by people in different cultures around the world. In Africa, alates is an important factor in the diet of indigenous populations. The tribe has a different way of collecting or processing insects; sometimes tribesmen collect soldiers from several species. Though difficult to obtain, the queen is considered a delicacy. Termites alates high in nutrition with adequate fat and protein levels. They are considered tasty, have a taste like peanuts after being cooked.
Alates are collected when the rainy season begins. During the marriage flight, they are usually seen around the lights attracting their attention, so the nets are mounted on lights and bundles that are caught then collected. The wings are removed through a technique similar to winnowing. The best results come when they are lightly roasted on a hot plate or fried until crunchy. Oil is not needed because their bodies usually contain enough oil. Termites are usually eaten when slender cattle and tribal plants have not developed or produced any food, or if food stocks from the previous planting season were limited.
In addition to Africa, termites are consumed in local or tribal areas in Asia and North and South America. In Australia, Indigenous Australians are aware that termites are edible but do not consume them even in times of scarcity; there are some explanations why. Termite mounds are the main source of soil consumption (geophagy) in many countries including Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe and South Africa. Researchers have suggested that termites are suitable candidates for human consumption and aerospace farming, because they are high in protein and can be used to convert non-edible waste into consumer products for humans.
In the field of agriculture
Termites can be a major agricultural pest, especially in East Africa and North Asia, where crop losses can be very severe (3-100% in crop loss in Africa). This balancing is an excellent water infiltration in which termite tunnels in the soil allow deep-seated deepwater, which helps reduce soil runoff and soil erosion through bioturbation. In South America, cultivated plants such as eucalyptus, upland rice, and sugarcane can be severely damaged by termite infestation, with attacks on leaves, roots and wooden tissue. Termites can also attack other plants, including cassava, coffee, cotton, fruit trees, corn, peanuts, soybeans and vegetables. The mound may disrupt agricultural activity, making it difficult for farmers to operate agricultural machinery; however, although farmers do not like the mound, it is often the case that there is no net loss of production. Termites can be beneficial to agriculture, such as by increasing yields and enriching the soil. Termites and ants can colonize back untreated lands containing stumps, which colonies use for food when they build their nests. The presence of nests in the fields allows larger amounts of rainwater to soak into the soil and increase the amount of nitrogen in the soil, both important for plant growth.
In science and technology
Intestinal termites have inspired a variety of research efforts aimed at replacing fossil fuels with cleaner renewable energy sources. Termite is an efficient bioreactor, capable of producing two liters of hydrogen from a single sheet of paper. About 200 species of microbes live in hindgut termites, releasing the trapped hydrogen in the wood and plants they digest. Through the action of unidentified enzymes in the termite intestine, the lignocellulose polymer is broken into sugar and converted to hydrogen. The bacteria in the intestine convert sugar and hydrogen into cellulose acetate, the acetate esters of cellulose in which termites depend for energy. DNA sequencing of microbial communities in hindgut termites has been used to provide a better understanding of metabolic pathways. Genetic engineering allows hydrogen to be produced in bioreactors from woody biomass.
The development of autonomous robots capable of building intricate structures without human assistance has been inspired by the mound of complexes built by termites. These robots work independently and can move themselves on tracks, able to climb and lift bricks. Such robots may be useful for future projects on Mars, or to build embankments to prevent flooding.
Termites use sophisticated tools to control the temperature of their bumps. As discussed above, the shape and orientation of termites of Australian compass termites stabilizes their internal temperatures during the day. As the tower heats up, the sun's chimney effect (stack effect) creates an airflow inside the mound. The wind blowing across the top of the tower improves the air circulation through the mound, which also includes side vents in their construction. The chimney effect of the sun has been used for centuries in the Middle East and Near East for passive cooling, as well as in Europe by the Romans. But only recently, climate-responsive construction techniques have been incorporated into modern architecture. Especially in Africa, the heap effect has become a popular way to achieve natural ventilation and passive cooling in modern buildings.
In culture
Eastgate Center is a shopping center and office block in the center of Harare, Zimbabwe, whose architect, Mick Pearce, uses passive coolers that are inspired by those used by local termites. This is the first major building to take advantage of termite-inspired cooling techniques to attract international attention. Other buildings such as the Learning Resources Center at the Catholic University of East Africa and the House House 2 building in Melbourne, Australia.
Some zoos maintain termites, because of the difficulty of holding them and the reluctance of authorities to allow potential pests. One of the few that did, the Basel Zoo in Switzerland, has two rapidly growing populations - resulted in a very rare event in captivity: the mass migration of young flying termites. This happened in September 2008, when thousands of male termites left their mounds every night, died, and covered the floors and water holes of the houses holding their exhibits.
African tribes in some countries have termites as totems, and for this reason tribe members are forbidden to eat reproductive food. Termites are widely used in traditional traditional medicine; they are used as a treatment for diseases and other conditions such as asthma, bronchitis, hoarseness, influenza, sinusitis, tonsillitis and whooping cough. In Nigeria,
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Source of the article : Wikipedia
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